WHAT:
X-rays
* Mysterious rays capable of penetrating solid bodies.
WHO:
Wilhelm Röentgen
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
*
In their own words:
* On a New Kind of Rays
by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845-1923);
source: read before the Würzburg Physical and Medical Society, 1895.
WHAT:
Radioactivity
* Invisible rays discovered in Uranium acting similarly to X-rays.
* Penetrating rays capable of ionizing gases, but spontaneously emitted from Uranium, not mechanically generated.
WHO:
Henri Becquerel
HOW:
*
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
In their own words:
* On Radioactivity, a New Property of Matter
by Antoine Becquerel;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1903
* On the rays emitted by phosphorescence.
On the invisible rays emitted by phosphorescent bodies.
by Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908);
source: read before the French Academy of Science 24 Feb. 1896
* On Hyperphosphorescence
by Silvanus P. Thompson;
source: Phil. Mag. 42, 103 (1896)[1]
WHAT:
“Ionizing Radiation”
* X-rays and radioactivity cause ionization of gases.
WHO:
J.J. Thomson
Ernest Rutherford
* graduate student
HOW:
*
*
NOTES:
*
*
WHAT:
Electron
* The fundamental unit of electricity.
* First elementary particle.
WHO:
J.J. Thomson
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* Cathode Rays
by J. J. Thomson;
source: Philosophical Magazine, 44, 293 (1897)
* On the Masses of the Ions in Gases at Low Pressures.
by J.J. Thomson, M.A., F.R.S.;
source: Philosophical Magazine, December 1899, Series 5, Vol. 48, No. 295, p. 547-567
* On the Structure of the Atom: an Investigation of the Stability and Periods of Oscillation of a number of Corpuscles arranged at equal intervals around the Circumference of a Circle; with Application of the Results to the Theory of Atomic Structure
by J.J. Thomson, F.R.S.;
source: Philosophical Magazine, Series 6, Volume 7, Number 39, March 1904, p. 237-265
* On the Number of Corpuscles in an Atom
by Prof J.J. Thomson, M.A., F.R.S.;
source: Philosophical Magazine, vol. 11, June 1906, p. 769-781
* Carriers of Negative Electricity
by J.J. Thomson;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1906
WHAT:
Alpha Rays
Beta Rays
* Rays differentiated within radioactivity.
WHO:
Ernest Rutherford
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* Uranium Radiation and the Electrical Conduction Produced by It
by E. Rutherford, M.A., B.SC.;
source: Philosophical Magazine for January 1899, ser. 5, xlvii, pp. 109-163
* A Radioactive Substance emitted from Thorium Compounds
by E. Rutherford, M.A., B.SC.;
source: Philosophical Magazine for January 1900, ser. 5, xlix, pp. 1-14
* The Nature of the a Particle from Radioactive Substances
by Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) and T. Royds;
source: Phil. Mag. 17, 281-6 (1909)
* The Chemical Nature of the Alpha Particles from Radioactive Substances
by Ernest Rutherford;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1908
WHAT:
Polonium
Radium
* Naturally occurring elements discovered on the basis of their radioactivity.
WHO:
Marie Curie
* Called the first great woman scientist.
Pierre Curie
HOW:
*
*
NOTES:
*
*
In their own words:
* Rays emitted by compounds of uranium and of thorium
by Marie Sklodowska Curie (1867-1934);
source: note presented by M. Lippmann, Comptes Rendus 126, 1101-3 (1898)
* On a New Radioactive Substance Contained in Pitchblende
by M. P. Curie and Mme. S. Curie;
source: note presented by M. Becquerel; Comptes Rendus 127, 175-8 (1898)
* On a new, strongly radioactive substance, contained in pitchblende
by M. P. Curie, Mme. P. Curie, and M. G. Bémont;
source: note presented by M. Becquerel; Comptes Rendus 127, 1215-7 (1898)
* Radium and the New Concepts in Chemistry
by Marie Curie;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1911
* Radioactive Substances, Especially Radium
by Pierre Curie;
source: Nobel Lecture, June 6, 1905
* Radium and Radioactivity
by Marie Sklodowska Curie;
source: Century Magazine (January 1904), pp. 461-466
* The Dream Becomes a Reality: The Discovery of Radium
by Marie Sklodowska Curie;
source: chapter five - Pierre Curie [1923]
* The Discovery of Radium
by Marie Sklodowska Curie;
source: Ellen S. Richards Monographs No. 2 (Poughkeepsie: Vassar College, 1921), n.p.
WHAT:
Actinium
* Naturally occurring element.
WHO:
Andre Debierne
HOW:
*
WHAT:
Gamma Rays
* A third component discovered in radioactivity
WHO:
Paul Villard
HOW:
*
*
NOTES:
*
WHAT:
Quantum Hypothesis
WHO:
Max Planck
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
In their own words:
* On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum
by Max Planck;
source: Annalen der Physik, vol. 4, p. 553 ff (1901)
* The Genesis and Present State of Development of the Quantum Theory
by Max Planck;
source: Nobel Lecture, June 2, 1920
WHAT:
Radon
* Naturally occurring element.
WHO:
Friedrich Dorn
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
WHAT:
Transmutation
* Every emission of radiation in radioactivity alters the emitting atom and turns it into an atom of another element.
* Radioactive decay series of Uranium, Thorium, and Actinium identified.
WHO:
Ernest Rutherford
Frederick Soddy
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
In their own words:
* The Cause and Nature of Radioactivity
by Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy;
source: Philosophical Magazine 4, 370-96 (1902)
WHAT:
Photon
* Elementary particle (still).
* The quantum of light energy.
WHO:
Albert Einstein
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
In their own words:
* Concerning an Heuristic Point of View Toward
the Emission and Transformation of Light [PDF]
by A. Einstein;
source: Ann. Phys. 17, 132. Translation: American Journal of Physics, v. 33, n. 5, May 1965
[ http://spica.ihep.su/hist/owa/hw.part2?s_c=EINSTEIN+1905 ]
* On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light [PDF]
by A. Einstein;
source: Ann. Physik 17, 132 (1905). [ http://lorentz.phl.jhu.edu/AnnusMirabilis/#common ]
WHAT:
Special Theory of Relativity
WHO:
Albert Einstein
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
*
*
In their own words:
* On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies
by A. Einstein;
source: Annalen der Physik. 17:891, 1905
* Does the Inertia of a Body Depend on its Energy-Content?
by A. Einstein;
source: Annalen der Physik. 18:639, 1905
* Relativity: The Special and General Theory
by Albert Einstein;
source: New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1920. Translated by Robert W. Lawson.
* The History of Field Theory ("Olds and News of Field Theory")
by Albert Einstein;
source: (February 3, 1929) "presented to the general public"?
* Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity
by Albert Einstein;
source: Nobel Lecture, July 11, 1923
WHAT:
Geiger Counter
* perfected in 1928
WHO:
Hans Geiger
Ernest Marsden
* working under Ernest Rutherford.
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
WHAT:
Atomic Nucleus
* Most of the mass of an atom resides in an incredibly small and dense, positively charged center, which is surrounded by atomic electrons.
* In the light of the nuclear model of the atom it became clear that the origin of all radioactive radiations, including beta, was the nucleus of the atom, since only a change in the nucleus could transform one element into another.
WHO:
Ernest Rutherford
* with experimental results of Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
*
In their own words:
* The Scattering of a and b Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom
by E. Rutherford, F.R.S.;
source: Philosophical Magazine, Series 6, vol. 21, May 1911, p. 669-688
* The Structure of the Atom
by Ernest Rutherford;
source: Philosophical Magazine, Series 6, Volume 27, March 1914, p. 488 - 498
* The Scattering of the a-Particles by Matter
by H. GEIGER, Ph.D.;
source: Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. A83, p. 492-504
* On a Diffuse Reflection of the a-Particles
by By H. GEIGER,and E. MARSDEN;
source: Proc. Roy. Soc. 1909 A, vol. 82, p. 495-500
* The Laws of Deflexion of a Particles through Large Angles
by H. GEIGER and E. MARSDEN;
source: Philosophical Magazine, Series 6, Volume 25, Number 148, April 1913
WHAT:
Cosmic Rays
* penetrating radiation incident on the atmosphere from outer space.
WHO:
Victor Hess
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
In their own words:
* Unsolved Problems in Physics: Tasks for the Immediate Future in Cosmic Ray Studies
by Victor F. Hess;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1936
WHAT:
X-ray Diffraction
* proves electromagnetic nature of X-rays
WHO:
Max von Laue
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
In their own words:
* Concerning the Detection of X-ray Interferences
by Max von Laue;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1915
WHAT:
Cloud Chamber
* Paths of charged atomic particles made visible.
WHO:
C.T.R. Wilson
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
In their own words:
* On the Cloud Method of Making Visible Ions and the Tracks of Ionizing Particles
by C.T.R. Wilson;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1927
* Nobel Banquet Speech
by C.T.R. Wilson;
source: Stockholm, December 10, 1927
WHAT:
Isotopes
* Atoms dentical in chemical properties (having same nuclear charge) and differing only in atomic mass.
WHO:
Frederick Soddy
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* The Radio-elements and the Periodic Law
by Frederick Soddy;
source: Chemical News 107, 97-9 (1913)
* Intra-atomic Charge
by Frederick Soddy;
source: Nature 92, 399-400 (December 4, 1913)
* Radioactivity
by Frederick Soddy;
source: Chemical Society Annual Reports 10, 262-88 (1913)
* The Origins of the Conception of Isotopes
by Frederick Soddy;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1922
* Radioactive Transformations and the Periodic System of The Elements
by Kasimir Fajans;
source: Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 46, p. 422-439 (1913)
WHAT:
Atomic Number
* Explains the Periodic Table of the elements on the basis of nuclear charge.
WHO:
Henry Moseley
* Great promise for science was cut off when Moseley was killed at Gallipoli in World War One at the age of 28.
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* The High Frequency Spectra of the Elements
by H. G. J. Moseley, M. A.;
source: Phil. Mag. (1913), p. 1024
WHAT:
Bohr Atom
* Rutherford-Bohr Atom Model
* Central nucleus orbited by electrons (the 20th century atom icon familiar in popular culture).
WHO:
Niels Bohr
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
- Niels Bohr
*
*
*
*
In their own words:
* On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules
by Niels Bohr;
source: Philosophical Magazine, Series 6, Volume 26, July 1913, p. 1-25
* Atomic Structure
by Niels Bohr;
source: Nature, March 24, 1921
* The Structure of the Atom
by Niels Bohr;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1922
* THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS AND THE OCTET THEORY OF VALENCE
by Irving Langmuir;
source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, Vol. V, 252 (1919)
WHAT:
Radioactive Tracer
* first use
WHO:
George de Hevesy
* jointly with Frederic Paneth
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* Some Applications of Isotopic Indicators
by George de Hevesy;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1944
WHAT:
Proton
* The nuclear carrier of positive charge; fundamental building block of all atoms.
Artificial Transmutation
* First human made nuclear transformation.
WHO:
Ernest Rutherford
James Chadwick
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
*
In their own words:
* Collisions of alpha Particles with Light Atoms. IV. An Anomalous Effect in Nitrogen.
by Sir Ernest Rutherford;
source: The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 6th series, 37, 581 (1919)
* Bakerian Lecture: Nuclear Constitution of Atoms
by Sir Ernest Rutherford;
source: Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 97, 374 (1920)
WHAT:
Compton Effect
* Scattering of X-rays by electrons.
WHO:
Arthur Compton
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* X-rays as a Branch of Optics
by Arthur H. Compton;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1927
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
WHAT:
Wave Equation
* for electrons
* The electron is a wave too!
WHO:
Louis de Broglie
NOTES:
*
*
*
In their own words:
* RADIATION — Waves and Quanta
by Louis de Broglie;
source: presented by Jean Perrin (Translated from Comptes rendus, Vol. 177, 1923, pp. 507-510)
* The Wave Nature of the Electron
by Louis de Broglie;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1929
WHO:
Werner Heisenberg
Max Born
Pascual Jordan
HOW:
*
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
In their own words:
* The Development of Quantum Mechanics
by Werner Heisenberg;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1933
* Speech at the Nobel Banquet
by Max Born;
source: Stockholm, December 10, 1954
* The Statistical Interpretations of Quantum Mechanics
by Max Born;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1954
*
by ;
source:
WHO:
Enrico Fermi
P.A.M. Dirac
* Working independently.
NOTES:
*
WHAT:
Quantum Wave Mechanics
* Non-relativistic Quantum Mechanics
WHO:
Erwin Schrödinger
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
In their own words:
* The Fundamental Idea of Wave Mechanics
by Erwin Schrödinger;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1933
WHAT:
High Energy Physics
* Observes cosmic ray particles with energies greatly exceeding those of natural radioactivity.
* First observation of cosmic ray showers.
WHO:
D.V. Skobeltsyn
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
WHAT:
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
* Relativistic Wave Equation
* Antimatter Hypothesis
WHO:
P.A.M. Dirac
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
*
*
In their own words:
* Theory of Electrons and Positrons
by Paul A.M. Dirac;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1933
* Nobel Banquet Speech
by Paul A.M. Dirac;
source: Stockholm, December 10, 1933
WHAT:
Particle Accelerator
* Cockcroft/Walton accelerator
* First high-voltage particle accelerater.
WHO:
John Cockroft
Ernest Walton
HOW:
*
*
NOTES:
*
*
In their own words:
* The Artificial Production of Fast Particles
by Ernest T.S. Walton;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1951
* Experiments on the Interaction of High-Speed Nucleons with Atomic Nuclei
by John Cockcroft;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1951
* Nobel Banquet Speech
by John Cockcroft;
source: Stockholm, December 10, 1951
WHAT:
Neutrino Hypothesis
WHO:
Wolfgang Pauli
HOW:
*
WHAT:
Cyclotron
WHO:
Ernest Lawrence
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* The Evolution of the Cyclotron
by Ernest Lawrence;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1951
* Nobel Banquet Speech
by Ernest Lawrence;
source: Berkeley, February 29, 1940
WHAT:
Neutron
* Uncharged particle of approximately same mass as a proton.
* Essential constituent of all atoms.
WHO:
James Chadwick
* following up on inconclusive experiments of 1930 by W. Bothe and H. Becker, and of 1932 by Irčne Curie and Frédéric Joliot
*
HOW:
*
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
In their own words:
* Possible Existence of a Neutron
by James Chadwick;
source: Nature, p. 312 (Feb. 27, 1932)
* The Existence of a Neutron
by J. Chadwick, F.R.S.;
source: Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 136, p. 692-708 (Received May 10, 1932)
* The Neutron and Its Properties
by James Chadwick;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1935
WHAT:
Positron
* Another fundamental particle.
* The positive electron; the electron's anti-particle
WHO:
Carl D. Anderson
HOW:
*
*
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* The Production and Properties of Positrons
by Carl D. Anderson;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1936
* Nobel Banquet Speech
by Carl D. Anderson;
source: Stockholm, December 10, 1936
* Interview with Carl Anderson
by Carl D. Anderson interviewed by Harriett Lyle, 1979;
source: Oral History Project, California Institute of Technology Archives, Pasadena, California.
WHAT:
Pair Production
* Positron/Electron pair produced from photon.
* Also observed cosmic ray showers, or cascades.
WHO:
Patrick Blackett
Giuseppe Occhialini
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* Cloud Chamber Researches in Nuclear Physics and Cosmic Radiation
by Patrick M.S. Blackett;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 13, 1948
* Nobel Banquet Speech
by Patrick M.S. Blackett;
source: Stockholm, December 10, 1948
* The Coincidence Method
by Walther Bothe;
source: Nobel Lecture [1954]
WHAT:
Neutron Bombardment
WHO:
Enrico Fermi
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
In their own words:
* Possible Production of Elements of Atomic Number Higher than 92
by E. Fermi;
source: Nature, 133, p. 898-899 (1934)
* Artificial Radioactivity Produced by Neutron Bombardment
by Enrico Fermi;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1938
WHO:
Irčne Curie
Frédéric Joliot
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* Artificial Production of Radioactive Elements
by Irčne Joliot-Curie;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1935
* Chemical Evidence of the Transmutation of Elements
by Frédéric Joliot;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1935
WHAT:
Meson
* predicted mathematically.
WHO:
Hideki Yukawa
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* Meson Theory in Its Developments
by Hideki Yukawa;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1949
WHAT:
Muon
* first called “mesotron”
WHO:
Carl Anderson
Seth Neddermeyer
HOW:
*
*
NOTES:
*
WHAT:
Induced Fission
Transuranic Elements
WHO:
Enrico Fermi
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
WHAT:
Nuclear Fission
* Splitting the atom.
WHO:
Otto Hahn
Fritz Strassman
* Explained later by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch (1939)
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* Concerning the Existence of Alkaline Earth Metals Resulting from Neutron Irradiation of Uranium
by O. Hahn AND F. Strassman;
source: Die Naturwissenschaften 27, p. 11-15 (January 1939). [Transl. in American Journal of Physics, January 1964, p. 9-15]
* Proof of the Formation of Active Isotopes of Barium from Uranium and Thorium Irradiated with Neutrons; Proof of the Existence of More Active Fragments Produced by Uranium Fission
by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann;
source: Die Naturwissenschaften, Volume 27, No. 6, pp. 89-95 (10 February 1939) [Transl. from Journal of Chemical Education, May 1989, p. 363-363]
* Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction
by Lise Meitner and O.R. Frisch;
source: Nature, 143, 239-240, (Feb. 11, 1939)
* Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment
by 0. R. Frisch;
source: Nature (London), Volume 143, p. 276 (1939)
* The Discovery of Fission
by Otto Frisch and John Wheeler;
source: Physics Today, p. 43, November 1937
WHAT:
Chain Reaction
* the possibility
WHO:
Irčne Curie
Frédéric Joliot
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
WHAT:
Neptunium
* synthesized element
WHO:
Edwin McMillan
Philip Abelson
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
WHAT:
Atomic Energy
* Controlled fission of uranium; sustained nuclear chain reaction.
WHO:
Enrico Fermi
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
In their own words:
* THE FIRST ATOMIC FILE: An Eyewitness Account Revealed by Some of the Participants and Narratively Recorded
by Corbin Allardice and Edward R. Trapnell;
source: The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D.C., November 1949
WHAT:
Plutonium
* synthesized transuranic element
WHO:
Glenn Seaborg
Edwin McMillan
Joseph Kennedy
Arthur Wahl
HOW:
*
*
In their own words:
* The Transuranium Elements: Early History
by Edwin M. McMillan;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1951
* The Transuranium Elements: Present Status
by Glenn T. Seaborg;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1951
WHAT:
Atomic Bomb
* Uncontrolled fission chain reaction.
*
WHO:
J. Robert Oppenheimer
* leading the Manhattan Project
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* Los Alamos Conference Summary
by Oppenheimer, Manley, Fermi, Bethe;
source: 15-24 April 1943
* The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
by The Manhattan Engineer District;
source: June 29, 1946
* The Effects of Nuclear Weapons
by Compiled and edited by Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan;
source: Third Edition, Prepared and published by the United States Department of Defense and the Energy Research and Development Administration, 1977.
* Atomic Energy for Military Purposes
by Henry De Wolf Smyth;
source: The Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb Under the Auspices of the United States Government (July 1945)
WHAT:
Ilford Photographic Plates
* “Nuclear Research Emulsions”
* Refinement of emulsions gives more subtle measurement capability.
WHO:
Cecil Powell
* with Giuseppe Occhialini, et al
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
In their own words:
* The Cosmic Radiation
by Cecil Powell;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1950
* Nobel Banquet Speech
by Cecil Powell;
source: Stockholm, December 10, 1950
WHAT:
Pion
* The meson predicted by H. Yukawa in 1935.
WHO:
Cecil Powell
* with Giuseppe Occhialini, et al
HOW:
*
*
WHAT:
Bubble Chamber
WHO:
Donald Glaser
* with Louis Alvarez
HOW:
*
NOTES:
*
*
*
In their own words:
* Elementary Particles and Bubble Chambers
by Donald A. Glaser;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1960
* Recent Developments in Particle Physics
by Luis Alvarez;
source: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1968
* Interview with Professor Donald Glaser
by Professor Anders Bárány;
source: Video of meeting of Nobel Prize Winners in Lindau, Germany, 2000.
WHAT:
Thermonuclear Bomb
* Hydrogen Bomb; Fusion Bomb
WHO:
Edward Teller
* et al
In their own words:
* General Advisory Committee's Majority and Minority Reports on Building the H-Bomb
by J. Robert Oppenheimer, E. Fermi, I.I. Rabi, et al;
source: October 30, 1949
* Comments on the History of the H-Bomb (PDF 1.51 MB)
by Hans Bethe;
source: Los Alamos Science, Fall 1982, Vol. 3, Num. 3